Demand and Factors that Determine the Demand for Rail Transport Assignment

Demand and Factors that Determine the Demand for Rail Transport Between London and Preston - Assignment Example According to the law of demand, with other factors held constant, generally, the demand decreases/increases with the increase/decrease in price of the good. This relationship between demand and price is plotted on a graph as a â€Å"demand curve† as shown in Figure 1. What factors determine the demand for rail transport between London and Preston? The demand for rail transport between London and Preston depends on the following factors: 1. Price of rail travel between London and Preston: The most important factor that determines demand of this transport is the price of rail ticket to travel between London and Preston. Travelers would compare this price of ticket to cost of using alternative transport. This is important not only for people travelling once in a while but also for frequent travelers. If there exists considerably reduced fare possibility for frequent travelers, the demand could be expected to be higher from these frequent travelers would have lower cost of travel. 2. Time taken by rail travel between London and Preston: Time taken to travel by train is another important factor. If the time taken by train is considerably longer than other means of transport, the demand may be lower for rail travel. 3. Quality of rail service between Lo ndon and Preston: The quality of service could also be an important factor. It includes not only the quality and comfort of travel by train but also other factors like the frequency of trains, on-time arrival, and the time of departure/arrival of trains. Frequency of trains is important so that if consumer(s) change their itinerary suddenly, if there are alternative trains frequently running, they would not be forced to shift to another means of transport. Next, if the trains are frequently running late, consumers may not find the rail travel very efficient. Also, if the departure and arrival times of trains are not convenient, consumers would not find rail travel very attractive. For example if trains arrive only late at night or if the trains run during the entire length of the day, consumers may be put off. 4. Attractiveness of alternative modes of travel between London and Preston: There could be several other ways consumers to travel between London and Preston. If these service s are more attractive, then demand for rail travel would be low. The attractiveness of these alternatives also depends on the relative price of these modes, relative comfort, and other factors. Some of these are discussed below for the three other possible modes of transport a. By car: Several factors could influence the attractiveness of going by car instead. These factors include: fuel price (cost of taking the car), relative length of time taken to drive compared to rail travel, and quality of highways (comfort of ride). b. By air: Factors influencing the relative attractiveness of air travel are: price of air travel, relative total time taken to get from â€Å"door to door†, and of quality air transport services. However, there is another important factor here which is the distance of nearest airport from Preston. c. By bus: Factors influencing the relative attractiveness of bus travel are: price of bus tickets, time taken by buses, and the quality of bus services. 5. Day of the week and seasonal effects: The day of the week could be an important factor. For example, if business travel is frequent on this route, then weekends may see a much lower demand. Also, Seasonal effects are likely to significantly influence demand. For example, during Christmas the demand may be

Jack Kerouacs on the Road - a Biography Essay Example for Free

Jack Kerouacs on the Road a Biography Essay On the Road was published in 1957 by Viking Press. Apart from criticism by traditional conservatives, Jack Kerouac’s novel gained huge popularity with a younger generation of rebels (point to Sam’s pencilcase). Commonly viewed as an autobiography combined with a biography of Neal Cassady, it is considered a testament to the Beat legend. Fascinated by the myth of the King of the Beatniks, I examined the authenticity of On the Road and found several issues: the method in which it was written, spontaneous prose; lack of primary sources; and the author’s intention. Jean Louis Lebris de Kerouac was born on the 12 March 1922 in Lowell, Massachusetts. He gained a football scholarship to Columbia University in New York, where he met Allen Ginsberg and William S. Burroughs, who together form the three literary musketeers of the Beat Generation. The Beat Gen were a stalwart literary movement active during the 50s, whose iconoclastic texts dissented formalist constriction of expression, experimentation and individualism, and viewed post-war prosperity, and materialism as antithetical to social equality. Their works pushed the boundaries of censorship, including underground elements sinister to the establishment such as homosexuality, drugs, bop jazz, impulsive desire, preference for marginalised cultures, like Buddhist and Native American, and unconformity to the typically American dream of white picket fence within which your three cherub children can safely frolic. The traditional conservatives called it unrefined and anti-intellectual, and politicians labelled aspects of the Beat Gen psyche as Communist. The popularity and resonance Beat Gen lit had with the youth rebellion generation made it a prominently influential movement in American literature. The Beat Gen members, being life long friends, shared these views and were inspired by figures of the counterculture, in the case of On the Road, Neal Cassady, who was the Beat beliefs personified, â€Å"the holy con-man with the shining mind† (p11). On the Road is about Sal Paradise, an amateur writer struggling with inspiration when he is introduced to Dean Moriarty, a walking legend, the epitome of a Beat man. The novel marks distinct stages of Sal’s growth and development, and his relationship with Dean as he â€Å"shambled after as I’ve been doing † Narrated by Sal, he meets and travels with other characters, bumming and hitchhiking across America. Kerouac developed spontaneous prose, inspired by improvisation in jazz and passionate excitement, its highly confessional, immediate, producing a raw, liberal and intense stream of consciousness, establishing spiritual and personal connections with the narrator. This convinces the reader of a high degree of honesty and vulnerability, and authenticity. Also, there’s an infamous story that adds to the legend of Kerouac and On the Road: the manuscript was typed in 2 weeks fuelled by coffee and Benzedrine, on a seriously lengthy scroll, of teletype paper taped together so that changing the roll wouldn’t disrupt his writing. Tim Hunt wrote in Kerouac’s Crooked Road that Kerouac â€Å"hoped that drafting Although it’s important that there is a high connection between the writer and the reader, it’s also important to note that this sort of spontaneity compromises the detail and accuracy of Sal’s accounts, which brings into questions the subtleties and chronology of small-scale action. Also, his emotional investment makes his narration highly opinionated and being so influenced by Cassady as to travel across the country, Kerouac’s opinions transferred into Sal the persona are influenced heavily by De an. The authenticity and honesty that spontaneous prose conceptualises is undermined by the deliberation and large revision of the manuscript. The published edition was the fourth, and he had been working on On the Road for 2 and a half years, within which he was experimenting with his writing style. He loathed and complained when his editor, who he called a â€Å"crass idiot†, forced several revisions of contextually pornographic sections. In Essentials of spontaneous Prose, released in 1958, he claims that the conscious critical mind might censor richness of imagination. And I think richness of imagination is a euphemism for â€Å"high†, considering the evidence, fictional and factual, of drugs like Benzedrine and weed that reduce clarity of mind, but stimulate the inventive senses. The high levels of intimacy of the actions, events, dialogue and lives of the characters and their real life counterparts means that we cannot satisfactorily negate or authenticate a large amo unt of content, considering the verbose and opportunistic nature of the characters, in particular Dean, and the introverted thoughtfulness of Kerouac. For instance, after his time with Remi Bonceour, an old friend of Sal’s, he sees â€Å"the cutest little Mexican girl in slacks† and he says: â€Å"I wished I was on her bus. A pain stabbed my heart, as it did every time I saw a girl I loved who was going the opposite direction in this too-big world. † Then lo and behold, he gets on his bus to LA and there she is sitting alone, he befriends/propositions/seduces in the proper gentlemanly way of the 50s as you would a â€Å"strange girl†, offering her his jacket for a pillow. Terry and Sal spend fifteen days together, Sal experiencing the Mexican labourer’s life, and at the end, he leaves with an empty promise of New York together. The truthfulness of this encounter is intimate to Kerouac and the girl that is dubbed Terry if she even exists. On the bus from St Louis to Pittsburgh, days after his parting with Terry, he â€Å"made the acquaintance of a girl and we necked all the way to Indianapolis. She was nearsighted. † He had just described his parting with Terry with â€Å"love is a duel, and looked at each other for the last time. Still, we have dates that correlate with the chronology of On the Road, but this doesn’t really authenticate the text, because the majority of it is thoughts, words, actions, affairs of people and these are not things that would have been recorded by the public or the media or any historically interested people. The limit on primary sources thanks to the Kerouac estate closing most of his original manuscripts and letters, means that even his biographies are dependent on very little, written post-mortem and supplemented by his friends who were close to his work, like John Clellon Holmes and Allen Ginsberg. Still, other publications that overlap time periods with On the Road include Vanity of Duluoz and Visions of Cody. Visions of Cody was intended as a sequel and replacement of On the Road, and the obscure structure and style seeming dependent on pure recollection, contrasts with the narrative style of On the Road. Kerouac struggled with the rejection of his first novel, The Town and the City, so in order to appeal to more people and find success, On the Road’s surprisingly conventional narrative structure furthers it away from biography and autobiography. The separation of four different trips emphasises the stages of plot development. It has a protagonist, Dean, who solicits the narrator, Sal, throughout their time together on the road. In fact every part begins revolving around Dean. So it’s understandable to think of On the Road as a biography of Neal Cassady, however, it’s highly biased, considering the obvious love, admiration and dedication Dean’s disciple shows, which then means that the biography would undoubtedly contain bias, hyperbole, neglect, forgiveness, and judgement. There are also motifs and allusions to great American stories – influenced by writers such as Melville, Hemingway, Saroyan and Twain, he makes reference to their work: â€Å"here came a melancholy Armenian youth along the red box-cars, and just at that moment a locomotive howled, and I said to myself, Yes, yes, Saroyan’s town† (p78). He had even planned to write in a black man to draw stronger connections to Huckleberry Finn, but decided against it. This is evidence of thematic concern, deliberation and careful consideration, which further undermines the whole spontaneous prose thing. It might be because I’m an avid fan of Kerouac, I just think he’s beautiful and beautifully written, but I think that the mysteriousness of the veracity of On the Road contributes to the aura that has accumulated throughout its time, and doesn’t degrade it as a milestone in literature and America. I think the authenticity of On the Road shouldn’t be brought to light in the first place because it wasn’t meant to be a biography of anyone, and it should just be read to marvel at the wondrousness of words and their meanings, just like any literature, and I really recommend you read it Sam because it’s totally cliche but it changed my life.

The Psychology Of The Fear Of Crime

The Psychology Of The Fear Of Crime Fear of crime is a very prevalent issue today. Many people in todays society express anxiety and fear about crime, and about being victimized. The level of fear that a person holds depends on many factors, including gender, age, any past experiences with crime that a person may have, where one lives, and ones ethnicity. All of these factors have an impact on fear levels. People react to fear in different ways. Some people try to avoid crime, others try to protect themselves, and still others try to prevent victimization by not possessing anything for which they can be victimized. The fear of crime is a critical issue in contemporary criminal justice policy because of its potential to create social misunderstanding. Although some awareness and concern about crime could be considered healthy or adaptive, taken to the extremes, the fear of crime can impede individuals behavior and affect the quality of life. The fear of crime is one of the most researched topics in crime (Farall 2000), with the risk of crime being seen as one of the most pressing concerns affecting peoples way of life. The fear of crime has social and psychological dimensions that require interdisciplinary analysis. (Helmut Kury, 2008) Not all behaviours indicative of fear, are prompted a by fearful experience. For example, taking insurance, locking the house, the car etc are everyday precautionary actions to minimize ones risk of crime, but is not necessarily provoked by a fear-inciting experience. These safety precautions are taken daily by a vast majority, without the attached emotional fear, just like the precautionary exercise, eating right so as to avoid the onset of ill health. DEFINITIONS The fear of crime refers to the fear of being a victim of crime as opposed to the actual probability of being a victim of crime. Fear, in this topic, is defined as an anticipation of victimization, rather than fear of an actual victimization. This type of fear relates to how vulnerable a person feels. Fear is also an emotional reaction characterized by a sense of danger and anxiety produced by the threat of physical harmelicited by perceived cues in the environment that relate to some aspect of crime (Church Council, 1995, p. 7). Crime can be defined as the breach of one or more rules or laws for which some governing authority or force may ultimately prescribe a punishment. OR. An act punishable by law. wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn The core aspect of fear of crime is the range of emotions that is provoked in individuals by the possibility of victimization. There might be two dimensions of fear: those everyday moments of worry that transpire when one feels personally threatened; and some more diffuse or anxiety about risk. Fear of crime can be differentiated into public feelings, thoughts and behaviors about the personal risk of criminal victimization. These feelings, thoughts and behaviors have a number of damaging effects on individual and group life: They can erode public health and psychological well-being; Alter routine activities and habits; Contribute to some places turning into no-go areas via a withdrawal from community; Drain community cohesion, trust and neighbourhood stability. FACTORS AFFECTING THE LEVEL OF FEAR EXHIBITED BY INDIVIDUALS Gender Gender has been found to be the strongest predictor of fear. Women have a much greater fear of crime than men, but are victimized less than men. Womens fear comes mostly from their vulnerability to sexual aggression: women are ten times more likely to be sexually assaulted than are men (Crowell Burgess, 1996). This fear of sexual assault and rape transposes itself onto other types of crimes (Ferraro, 1996). Women do not simply become aware of this fear one day, nor are they born with it; women are socialized into thinking that they are vulnerable to attack if they, for example, go out alone at night. Parents, peers and media emphasize and re-enforce this fear, and women are expected to succumb to it. Age Age is also a powerful predictor of fear but, unlike gender, with age the fear varies from crime to crime. When it comes to age, it is customary to assume that the elderly are the most afraid, and for many crimes, this assumption holds true, such as in mugging cases and break and enters. When it comes to crimes like rape, sexual assault and stranger attacks, it has been found that younger people tend to be more fearful (Evans, 1995). Elderly people have a high fear level in relation to many crimes because they feel vulnerable. This vulnerability stems from the physical and social limitations that elderly people have which renders them unable to defend themselves or to seek support and help. Past Experiences with Crime Many studies have examined whether or not past experiences with crime and criminals have any effect on the level of fear that a person holds, but findings have not been unanimous. Some studies have found no real differences between victims and non-victims, but other studies have documented a difference. In studying the effects of crime on college students, Dull and Wint (1997) found that those students who had been victims of crime had less fear of personal crime, but more fear of property crime, than those not victimized. Certain crimes generate more fear for victims than others. Being a victim of a robbery, for example, generates a high level of fear because it contains elements that cause a greater amount of fear to be instilled in its victims. Robbery usually involves a stranger, weapons, physical assaults and the loss of a fair amount of money (Skogan Klecka, 1997). Burglary, because of its invasion of privacy and substantial amount of loss, generates a high level of fear. The victims who express the most fear of walking alone in their neighbourhood after dark are victims of sexual assault, followed by victims of robbery, break and enter, assault, vandalism, motor vehicle theft, household theft and personal theft. Geography Fear of crime also varies according to where one lives. People who live in cities tend to hold higher levels of fear because cities and other urban areas tend to have higher crime rates than rural areas. Ethnicity and Culture Studies have found that fear levels vary according to ethnic background. While whites tend to show the least amount of fear, the question of who has the most fear has not been unanimously agreed upon. A 1994 British Crime Survey found that in relation to crimes of harassment, burglary, rape and mugging, the Asian group expressed the most fear. The Black group showed the next highest fear level in relation to these crimes, while the White group showed the least amount of fear. This survey also found that for the crime of theft from car, the Black group showed a slightly higher level of fear than the Asian group, and the White group once again had the lowest level of fear. In relation to simply feeling unsafe, the Asian group was the highest, and the White group had only a slightly higher level of fear than the Black group (Hough, 1995). Other Variables There are several other variables which have been examined in order to see if they have an effect on fear of crime. These variables are not as prominent as the ones listed above, but their effects are still worth noting. Factors such as low income levels (Evans, 1995; Silverman Kennedy, 1983), and low educational levels (Evans, 1995) tend to increase levels of fear. Factors influencing the fear of crime include public perceptions of neighborhood stability and breakdown, and broader factors where anxieties about crime express anxieties about the pace and direction of social change. There may also be some wider cultural influences: some have argued that modern times have left people especially sensitive to issues of safety and insecurity. REACTIONS TO THE FEAR OF CRIME Due to their fear of crime, people try to reduce their risk of victimization in three ways: avoidance behaviours, protective behaviours, and insurance behaviours (Garofalo, 1981). Avoidance behaviours are restrictive, involving avoiding unsafe areas at night or certain locations altogether, or reducing social interaction and movements outside of the home. Protective behaviours include obtaining security systems and watch dogs, joining self-defence courses, and/or participating in community programs such as Neighbourhood Watch. Insurance behaviours aim at reducing ones risk through the minimization of victimization costs, leaving the person feeling that they do not have anything of value to be victimized for, and therefore will not be victimized. Neighbourhood Watch was started as a way to reduce crime and fear by involving citizens in crime prevention, urging them to come together to talk about what is going on in their neighbourhood, and to formulate plans and methods to alleviate crime such as neighbourhood surveillance and crime- reporting activities Since the government is accountable to and elected by the public, the government must respond when change is demanded. The government reaction to the publics concern about, and fear of, crime is often one of changing correctional legislation. People get their information about crime from a number of sources, but one major source for information is the media. The media are a powerful way of getting messages across to citizens. Many studies have looked at the way in which the media portray crime and how their portrayals affect levels of fear. It has been found that the media tend to disproportionately represent violent accounts of crime. Concern about crime can be differentiated from perceptions of the risk of personal victimization. Concern about crime includes public assessments of the size of the crime problem. An example of a question that could be asked is whether crime has increased, decreased or stayed the same in a certain period and/or in a certain area, for instance the individuals own neighborhood. BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF FEAR OF CRIME A way to measure fear of crime is to ask people whether they ever avoid certain areas, protect certain objects or take preventive measures. This way, measuring fear of crime can become a relatively straightforward thing, because the questions asked tap into actual behavior and objective facts, such as the amount of money spent on a burglar-alarm or extra locks. However, it is important to note that some degree of fear might be healthy for some people, creating a natural defense against crime. In short, when the risk of crime is real, a specific level of fear might actually be functional: worry about crime might stimulate precaution which then makes people feel safer and lowers their risk of crime. The fear of crime is a very important feature in criminology. COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF FEAR OF CRIME By contrast, the cognitive side of fear of crime includes public perceptions of the likelihood of falling victim, public senses of control over the possibility, and public estimations of the seriousness of the consequences of crime. People who feel especially vulnerable to victimization are likely to feel that they are especially likely to be targeted by criminals (i.e. victimization is likely), that they are unable to control the possibility (i.e. they have low self-efficacy), and that the consequences would be especially severe. Additionally, these three different components of risk perception may interact: the impact of perceived likelihood on subsequent emotional response (worry, fear, anxiety, etc.) is likely to be especially strong among those who feel that consequences are high and self-efficacy is low. Perhaps the biggest influence on fear of crime is public concern about neighbourhood disorder, social cohesion and collective efficacy. The proposition here is that the incidence and risk of crime has become coupled in the public mind with issues of social stability, moral consensus, and the collective informal control processes which underpin neighborhood order. Many people also use the language of fear and crime to express concerns about neighbourhood breakdown, the loss of moral authority, and the crumbling of civility and social capital. People can come to different conclusions about the same social and physical environment: two individuals who live next door to each other and share the same neighbourhood can view local disorder quite differently. Why might people have different levels of tolerance or sensitivity to these potentially ambiguous cues? UK research has suggested that broader social anxieties about the pace and direction of social change may shift levels of tolerance to ambiguous stimuli in the environment. Individuals who hold more authoritarian views about law and order, and who are especially concerned about a long-term deterioration of community, may be more likely to perceive disorder in their environment. They may also be more likely to link these physical cues to problems of social cohesion and consensus, of declining quality of social bonds and informal social control. People, who have the fear of crime, may change their behaviour, prefer to stay at home and avoid activities such as travelling in the public transport due to the potential danger they believe the outer world poses (Garafalo, 1981, Patterson 1985, Hale 1996). Also people may fear certain/specific crime, like some women are afraid of going out in the night alone or going to certain places, for fear of being sexually assaulted. Many studies have been conducted to examine the predictors of fear of crime among adults, but feelings of insecurity among children and adolescents have been practically ignored. The effect of parenting styles on the childs level of fear is enormous. The level of parental supervision, especially fathers, is associated with more fears being experienced by children. Active parental stimulation of participation in organized leisure activities results in lower levels of fear among female children. Parents who focus on independence and autonomy, in contrast, seem to raise children who have lower degrees of fear. Other findings that relate to fear of crime in adolescence, such as gender differences and socialization, media and leisure patterns, and victimization and personal adjustment, are also important. A new University College London study has shown that people with a strong fear of crime are almost twice as likely to show symptoms of depression. The research shows that fear of crime is associated with decreased physical functioning and lower quality of life. The studys lead author, Dr Mai Stafford, UCL Epidemiology Public Health, said: Very broadly, these results show that if your fear of crime levels are higher, your health is likely to be worse particularly your mental health. Of course, you might expect that people who are depressed or frail might be more afraid of crime and venturing out of doors, so we have taken account of previous mental health problems and physical frailty and adjusted for those accordingly. Even with a level playing field, the data still demonstrates this strong link between fear of crime and poorer mental health. CONCLUSION Fear of crime is real and it affects peoples quality of life. It is believed, however, that the series of legislative initiatives enacted in reaction to fear of crime have not proven to be beneficial. Fear has not been reduced and people do not feel safer. As long as fear persists, the public will continue to call for more of the same harsh measures. It is time we took a second look at the limited safety provided by the correctional changes we have implemented. It is time that politicians and leaders stop merely reacting to fear by proposing simplistic, short-term solutions to the complex problems of crime. Years of research have shown that the correctional practices we now have in place are not effective in creating safe communities and simply delay the problem, thereby not reducing fear in the long-term. The public looks to others for help in reducing the fear of crime, but the people the public looks to for guidance cannot always be of help. When the public sees that the police, the government and the law are unable to assist them with their concerns, individuals will often take charge of the situation for themselves. This type of mentality can lead to vigilantism. Suggestion that a number of broad strategies be put in place to address both crime and fear of crime, includes 1) Educate the public about crime, crime prevention and what works in corrections. There are steps that can be taken to protect oneself and to reduce personal fear, but people need to have a better understanding of their risk and what measures do increase public safety. 2) Involve communities in both crime prevention through social development and in community-based justice programs. Direct citizen involvement in justice leads to a better informed citizenry, who then are more understanding of what impacts crime and how to change it.

College Days :: Personal Narrative, Autobiographical Essay

A year has past and now we stand on the brink of returning to a world where we are surrounded by the paradox of everything, and yet nothing being the same. Â   In days we will reluctantly give our hugs and, fighting the tears, say goodbye to people who were once just names on a sheet of paper to return to people that we hugged and fought tears to say goodbye to before we ever left. We will leave our best friends to return to our best friends. Â   We will go back to the places we came from and go back to the same things we did last summer and every summer before that. We will come into town on the same familiar road, and even though it has been months, it will seem like only yesterday. As you walk into your old bedroom, every emotion will pass through you as you reflect on the way your life has changed and the person you have become. You suddenly realize that the things that were most important to you a year ago don't seem to matter so much anymore, and the things you hold highest now, no one at home will completely understand. Â   The memories and the stories from school won't mean anything to anyone at home and yet you resent them for that, that they can't share that happiness with you. Â   Who will you call first? What will you do your first weekend home with your friends? How long before you actually start missing people barging in without calling or knocking? Who will get pizza at three in the morning with you now? How long until you adjust to sleeping alone in a room again? Â   Then you start to realize how much things have changed, and you realize the hardest part of college is balancing the two completely different worlds you now live in, trying desperately to hold on to everything all the while trying to figure out what you have to leave behind. In the matter of one day's traveling time, we will leave our world of living next door to our best friends, walking across campus to eat, instant messenger, 8:00am classes, and the perpetual procrastination to a world that will seem foreign to us despite the fact that we lived in it for eighteen years. Â   But it is different now.

Five sector circular flow of income of Australian economy

?Outline the main features of the five-sector circular flow of income model of the Australian economy. Explain how leakages and injections influence the level of economic activity. The five sector circular flow of income model describes the operation of an economy and the linkages between the main sectors in an economy. The model divides the income to five sectors; the individuals, Businesses, financial institutions, governments and international trade and financial flows.The individuals consist of all individuals in the economy and looks at their activities such as earning income and spending it on goods and services. They supply factors of production (inputs) such as labour and enterprise to businesses who then produce goods and services. Individuals then receive incomes as rent, wages, interest and profits. It is important to think of the individuals sector and the business firms together as together they affect the amount of economic activity in a circular flow of income. The bus inesses buy factors of production and use them to sell goods and services.They are dependent on individuals, as their spending becomes their income to then spend on producing the goods and services in demand for the consumers. Individuals and businesses are interdependent they are both needed to exist. The institutions involved in the borrowing and lending money of money are the financial institutions sector. They act between the savers and borrowers of money and consist of; banks, building societies, finance companies, credit unions, superannuation funds and life insurance companies.It enables individuals and businesses to both save and borrow money. The financial institutions mobilise savings so they can be used for investment. In the circular flow of income savings are leakages as it is money withdrawn causing a reduction in both the circular flow of income and in economic activity. The leakage of savings causes a fall in expenditure on goods and services, a fall in production, a fall in the demand for resources and a fall in income to the owners of those resources. To counteract the leakagesof savings there are injections of investment. Investment is any current expenditure that is made in order to obtain benefits in the future. Investments represent an injection into the circular flow and have the opposite effect of a leakage. Spending on investment would lead to rising expenditure, production, employment and income levels in the economy. The individuals, businesses and financial institutions make up the private sector of our economy. The government sector consists of the Commonwealth, state and local.They are responsible for collective (community) wants and obtain resources by imposing taxes on the other sectors of the economy. The government then uses tax revenue to undertake government expenditure. Taxation is a leakage in the economy and causes a reduction in the level of economic activity. Government expenditure represents an injection as it goes tow ards collective goods and services. The sector is our public sector and together with the private sector makes up the domestic sector in our economy.International trade and financial flows cover all transactions that our economy has with the rest of the world. This includes exports, imports and international money flows. Imports are goods and services produced overseas but sold in Australia and these payments represent leakages from the circular flow. Exports are goods and services produced in Australia but sold overseas to overseas customers and increase the size of the circular flow, as they are injections.

Faar

Jamie Schiller English 114 09/12/12 Difficulty Paper 1 â€Å"If one thinks of cultures, or literatures, as discrete, coherently structured, monolingual edifices, Guaman Poma’s text, and indeed any autoethnographic work, appears anomalous or chaotic – as it apparently did to the European scholars Pietschmann spoke to in 1912. If one does not think of cultures this way, then Guanman Poma’s text is simply heterogeneous, as the Andean region was itself and remains today. Such a text is heterogeneous on the reception end as well as the production end: it will read very differently to people in different positions in the contact zone. (page 492) I found this passage difficult because it uses many terms that I was only introduced to when I started reading Mary Louise Pratt’s essay. It is hard to follow because it uses difficult terms and packs a lot of information into a small amount of writing. Mary Louise Pratt introduces several concepts in the same passage, which was both overwhelming and distracting. It was difficult to understand the passage in its entirety the first time I read it, but after rereading the passage several times and giving it some thought, I think I may have a better understanding of what the author was trying to convey to her audience.I think that Mary Louise Pratt is saying that Guanman Poma’s text can be interpreted in more than one way. She uses the term â€Å"heterogeneous†, which means incongruous or unlike. This suggests that the text was complex and thus could easily be misinterpreted. If two people each have a different perspective of a certain society or culture is different from someone else’s, they probably will not share the same understanding of Poma’s work. Guanman Poma’s letters to the king were written in two languages. This could be a reason why people who view cultures as â€Å"coherently structured, monolingual edifices† may find his work chaotic and confus ing.The European scholars the Pietschmann spoke to in 1912 would not have been able to fully understand Guanman Poma’s work because they do not possess transcultural understanding. The part of the passage that states that, â€Å"If one does not think of cultures this way, then Guanman Poma’s text is simply heterogeneous, as the Andean region was itself and remains today,† suggests that those who come from a â€Å"contact zone†, where two different cultures intermingle, would be able to understand Guanman Poma’s message more easily.This might be caused by the fact that they are familiar with more than one culture existing together and therefore would not be confused or overwhelmed by Poma’s letters. This passage connects to the rest of Pratt’s essay because it talks about autoethnographic texts and transcultration. Pratt introduced both of these terms in her essay because she views them as â€Å"the phenomenon of the contact zone. â⠂¬ 